It is widely accepted that science is universal by nature. However, to make science universal, access to research findings is imperative. The open access model of publication of academic articles was established and consolidated during the last two decades. However, most of the open access journals apply article-processing charges (APCs), which can cost more than USD 10,000.00. In regions where support for research is scarce, these funds are usually not available. Similar problems occur in countries with weak economies and, consequently, unfavorable currency conversion rates. This situation reveals a barrier to the alleged universality of science and the access to research findings. In this manuscript, the barriers faced by authors and institutions from low-to-middle income regions to cover APCs and make their science freely available are discussed and illustrated with recent numbers.

Brazilian science is under attack. In this manuscript, we will discuss the most recent events that, if not reverted, will make Brazilian science inviable. We urge the scientific community in Brazil and abroad to stand up and resist in defense of more than a century of essential scientific contributions.

Abstract A rich, collaborative program funded by the US NIH Fogarty program in 2004 has provided for a decade of remarkable opportunities for scientific advancement through the training of Brazilian undergraduate, graduate and postdoctoral students from the Federal University and Oswaldo Cruz Foundation systems at Albert Einstein College of Medicine. The focus of the program has been on the development of trainees in the broad field of Infectious Diseases, with a particular focus on diseases of importance to the Brazilian population. Talented trainees from various regions in Brazil came to Einstein to learn techniques and study fungal, parasitic and bacterial pathogens. In total, 43 trainees enthusiastically participated in the program. In addition to laboratory work, these students took a variety of courses at Einstein, presented their results at local, national and international meetings, and productively published their findings. This program has led to a remarkable synergy of scientific discovery for the participants during a time of rapid acceleration of the scientific growth in Brazil. This collaboration between Brazilian and US scientists has benefitted both countries and serves as a model for future training programs between these countries.

Infecção do cérebro pelo fungo Cryptococcus neoformans resulta em um estimado de 500.000 mortes de pessoas por ano. A colonização do sistema nervoso central (SNC) pelo C. neoformans causa diversas síndromes clínicas que envolvem a interação de um número de componentes de fungo com distintas células do cérebro. Nesse artigo, nossa revisão da literatura confirmou a ideia de que a área de Cryptococcus está em rápida expansão, mas também sugeriu que os estudos sobre neuropatogênese ainda representam uma fração pequena da atividade de pesquisas básicas no campo. Nós, portanto, discutimos aspectos anatômicos e fisiológicos do cérebro durante a infecção pelo C. neoformans, além dos mecanismos pelos quais as células residentes do cérebro interagem com o fungo. Essa revisão sugere que esforços múltiplos são necessários para aprofundar o conhecimento sobre como o C. neoformans afeta as células do cérebro, para permitir a geração de novas ferramentas terapêuticas em futuro próximo.

Brain infection by the fungus Cryptococcus neoformans results in an estimated 500,000 human deaths per annum. Colonization of the central nervous system (CNS) by C. neoformans causes different clinical syndromes that involve interaction of a number of fungal components with distinct brain cells. In this manuscript, our literature review confirmed the notion that the Cryptococcus field is expanding rapidly, but also suggested that studies on neuropathogenesis still represent a small fraction of basic research activity in the field. We therefore discussed anatomical and physiological aspects of the brain during infection by C. neoformans, in addition to mechanisms by which brain resident cells interact with the fungus. This review suggests that multiple efforts are necessary to improve the knowledge on how C. neoformans affects brain cells, in order to enable the generation of new therapeutic tools in a near future.

Monohexosilceramidas (CMHs, cerebrosídios) são glicoesfingolipídios compostos de uma ceramida hidrofóbica ligada a uma unidade de açúcar. Em células fúngicas, CMHs são moléculas muito bem conservadas, consistindo de uma porção ceramida contendo 9-metil-4,8-esfingadienina ligada através de uma ligação amida aos ácidos 2-hidroxioctadecanoico ou 2-hidroxihexadecanoico e uma porção carboidrato constituída de uma unidade de glucose ou galactose. Ceramidas contendo 9-metil-4,8-esfingadienina são normalmente glicosiladas formando os cerebrosídios fúngicos; no entanto uma descrição recente de uma dihexosilceramida (CDH) em Magnaporthe grisea, apresentando fitoesfingosina sugere a existência de vias alternativas para a glicosilação de ceramidas nas células fúngicas. Além de suas particularidades estruturais, os CMHs de fungos apresentam uma distribuição celular incomum e funções biológicas características. Monohexosilceramidas estão aparententemente envolvidas nas transições morfológicas ou no crescimento dos fungos Pseudallescheria boydii, Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Aspergillus nidulans, A. fumigatus e Schizophylum commune. A elucidação dos aspectos estruturais e funcionais dos cerebrosídios fúngicos pode contribuir para a descoberta de novos agentes antifúngicos que inibam o crescimento ou a diferenciação de espécies patogênicas.

Ceramide monohexosides (CMHs, cerebrosides) are glycosphingolipids composed of a hydrophobic ceramide linked to one sugar unit. In fungal cells, CMHs are very conserved molecules consisting of a ceramide moiety containing 9-methyl-4,8-sphingadienine in amidic linkage to 2-hydroxyoctadecanoic or 2-hydroxyhexadecanoic acids, and a carbohydrate portion consisting of one residue of glucose or galactose. 9-Methyl 4,8-sphingadienine-containing ceramides are usually glycosylated to form fungal cerebrosides, but the recent description of a ceramide dihexoside (CDH) presenting phytosphingosine in Magnaporthe grisea suggests the existence of alternative pathways of ceramide glycosylation in fungal cells. Along with their unique structural characteristics, fungal CMHs have a peculiar subcellular distribution and striking biological properties. In Pseudallescheria boydii, Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Aspergillus nidulans, A. fumigatus, and Schizophyllum commune, CMHs are apparently involved in morphological transitions and fungal growth. The elucidation of structural and functional aspects of fungal cerebrosides may therefore contribute to the design of new antifungal agents inhibiting growth and differentiation of pathogenic species.